Street Light Free Essays

string(56) " and referencing the position of a building to the Sun\." INDEX |S. NO |TITLE |PAGE NO | |1 |Introduction |1 | |2 |Solar Energy |4 | |3 |Photovoltaics |24 | |4 |Solar Cell |28 | |5 |Solar Roadway |51 | |6 |Component description |55 | |7 |Working of Project |82 | |8 |Conclusion |86 | |9 |Images |91 | |10 |Bibliography |93 | INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. We will write a custom essay sample on Street Light or any similar topic only for you Order Now Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them; such as on telephone poles or utility poles. New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights, emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens allowing street lights with lower wattages and lower photopic lumens to replace existing street lights. Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments. This project is a LED based Solar Lights is an automatic street lightening system using a LDR and 6V/5W solar panel. During day time, the internal rechargeable battery receives charging current from the connected solar panel. Here IC 555 is wired as a medium current inverting line driver, switched by an encapsulated light detector (LDR). When ambient light dims, the circuits drive the white LEDs. When the ambient light level restores, circuit returns to its idle state and light(s) switched off by the circuit. Block Diagram: SOLAR ENERGY SOLAR ENERGY Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that â€Å"the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared†. The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth’s surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Earth’s land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth’s surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14  °C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The technical potential available from biomass is from 100–300 EJ/year. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth’s non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. [pic] Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2 or 3. 5 to 7. 0 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. You read "Street Light" in category "Essay examples" Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY Average  insolation  showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2  or 3. 5 to 7. 0 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy refers primarily to the use of  solar radiation  for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than  geothermal  and  tidal, derive their energy from the sun. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered  supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING [pic] Darmstadt University of Technology  in Germany  won the 2007  Solar Decathlon  in Washington, D. C. with this  passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate. Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the  Greeks  and  Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth. The common features of  passive solar  architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and  thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates’  Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together  solar lighting,  heating  and  ventilation  systems in an integrated  solar design  package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance. Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the Solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower  albedos  and higher  heat capacities  than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these methods, a hypothetical â€Å"cool communities† program in  Los Angeles  has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3  Ã‚ °C at an estimated cost of US$1  billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530  million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings. [23] AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE [pic] Greenhouses  like these in the Westland municipality of the  Netherlands  grow vegetables, fruits and flowers. Agriculture  and  horticulture  seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. [24][25]  While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the  Little Ice Age, French and  English  farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699,  Nicolas Fatio de Duillier  even suggested using a  tracking mechanism  which could pivot to follow the Sun. [26]  Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. [27][28]  More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses. [29] Greenhouses  convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce  cucumbers  year-round for the Roman emperor  Tiberius. [30]  The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. [31]  Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in  polytunnels  and  row covers. TRANSPORT AND RECONNAISSANCE [pic] Australia hosts the  World Solar Challengewhere solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a 3,021  km (1,877  mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide. Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The  World Solar Challenge  is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877  mi) across central Australia from  Darwin  to  Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner’s average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42  mph) and by 2007 the winner’s average speed had improved to 90. 87 kilometres per hour (56. 46  mph). [32]  The  North American Solar Challenge  and the planned  South African Solar Challenge  are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles. [33][34] Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption. [35][36] In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. [37]  By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. [38]  In 1996,  Kenichi Horie  made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the  sun21  catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. [39]  There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010. [40] [pic] Helios UAV  in solar powered flight. In 1974, the unmanned  AstroFlight Sunrise  plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the  Solar Riser  made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12  m). In 1980, the  Gossamer Penguin  made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the  Solar Challenger  which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990  Eric Scott Raymond  in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. [41]  Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the  Pathfinder  (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the  Helios  which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864  ft) in 2001. 42]  The  Zephyr, developed by  BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by 2010. [43] A  solar balloon  is a black balloon that is filled w ith ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward  buoyancy  force, much like an artificially heated  hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high. [44] DAYLIGHTING [pic] Daylighting features such as this  oculusat the top of the  Pantheon, in  Rome, Italy have been in use since antiquity. The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized a  right to light  as early as the  6th century  and English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. [45][46]  In the 20th century artificial  lighting  became the main source of interior illumination but daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption. Daylighting  systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This passive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for  air-conditioning. 47]  Although difficult to quantify, the use of  natural lighting  also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to  artificial lighting. [47]  Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be considered as well. Deciduous trees at the east and west ends of buildings offer shade in the summer and do not block the sun in the winter. [48]  Individual features include sawtooth roofs,  clerestory windows, light shelves,  skylights  and  light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but are most effective when integrated into a  solar design  package that accounts for factors such as  glare, heat flux and  time-of-use. When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce lighting-related energy requirements by 25%. [49] Hybrid solar lighting  (HSL) is an  active solar  method of providing interior illumination. HSL systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that  track the Sun  and use  optical fibers  to transmit it inside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received. [50] Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways. [51]  Solar-charged lanterns have become popular in developing countries where they provide a safer and cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps. [52] Although  daylight saving time  is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent research reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly when  gasoline  consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies. [53] SOLAR THERMAL Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation. [54] WATER HEATING [pic] Solar water heaters facing the  Sun  to maximize gain. Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below 40  degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60  Ã‚ °C can be provided by solar heating systems. [55]  The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools. [56] As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154  GW. [57]  China is the world leader in their deployment with 70  GW installed as of 2006 and a long term goal of 210  GW by 2020. [58]  Israel  and  Cyprus  are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. 59]  In the United States, Canada and Australia heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18  GW as of 2005. [18] HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION [pic] Solar House #1 of  Massachusetts Institute of Technology  in the United States, built in 1939, used  Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES)  for year-round heating. In the United States,  heating, ventilation and air conditioning  (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4. 65  EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10. 1  EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. [49][60]  Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy. Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment. [61] A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an  updraft  that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials[62]  in a way that mimics greenhouses. Deciduous  trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. [63]  Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. 64]  In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the southern side of a building because they will interfere with wint er solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain. [65] WATER TREATMENT [pic] Solar water disinfection  in  Indonesia [pic] Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant. Solar distillation can be used to make  saline  or  brackish water  potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists. [66]  A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the  Chilean  mining town of Las Salinas. 67]  The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700  m2, could produce up to 22,700  L  per day and operated for 40  years. [67]  Individual  still  designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. [66]  These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economica l for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications. [66] Solar water  disinfection  (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic  polyethylene terephthalate  (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. 68]  Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. [69]  It is recommended by theWorld Health Organization  as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. [70]  Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water. [69] Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat  waste water  without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is thatalgae  grow in such ponds and consume  carbon dioxide  in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable. [71][72] COOKING [pic] The Solar Bowl in  Auroville,  India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to produce  steam  for  cooking. Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and  pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. [73]  The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by  Horace de Saussure  in 1767. [74]  A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150  Ã‚ °C. [75]Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315  Ã‚ °C and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun. [76] The  solar bowl  is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen at  Auroville, in  Tamil Nadu,  India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along a line perpendicular to the sphere’s interior surface, and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching 150  Ã‚ °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen. [77] A reflector developed by  Wolfgang Scheffler  in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Scheffler reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power tower concentrators. Polar tracking  is used to follow the Sun’s daily course and the curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450–650  Ã‚ °C and have a fixed focal point, which simplifies cooking. [78]  The world’s largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road,  Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. [79]As of 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide. [80] PROCESS HEAT Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the  Solar Total Energy Project  (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400  kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401  kW steam and 468  kW chilled water, and had a one hour peak load thermal storage. [81] Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through  evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. [82] Clothes lines,  clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the â€Å"right to dry† clothes. [83] Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22  Ã‚ °C and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60  Ã‚ °C. [84]  The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12  years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. 84]  As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000  m2  had been installed worldwide, including an 860  m2  collector in  Costa Rica  used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300  m2  collector in  Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds. [28] ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION [pic] The  PS10  concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats on a central tower. Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into  electricity, either directly using  photovoltaics  (PV), or indirectly using  concentrated solar power  (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the  photoelectric effect. Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW  SEGS  CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW  Solnova Solar Power Station  and the 100 MWAndasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW  Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 214 MW  Charanka Solar Park  inIndia, are the  world’s largest  photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are grid connected using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. [85] Concentrated solar power Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a  working fluid  is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. [86] PHOTOVOLTAICS PHOTOVOLTAICS A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenite in place of copper oxide. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5–6%. By 2012 available efficiencies exceed 20% and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics is over 40%. OTHERS Besides concentrated solar power and photovoltaics, there are some other techniques used to generated electricity using solar power. These include: †¢Dye-sensitized_solar_cells, Luminescent solar concentrators (a type of concentrated photovoltaics or CPV technology), †¢Biohybrid solar cells, †¢Photon Enhanced Thermionic Emission systems. Development, deployment and economics Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the In dustrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum. [109] The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE). Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels. As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999. [57] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007. The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces: The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaic panels, solar water heaters and power stations built with mirrors could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications , from small scale to big scale†. We have proved †¦ that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun. —Frank Shuman, New York Times, July 2, 1916 SOLAR CELL SOLAR CELL A solar cell made from amonocrystalline silicon wafer Solar cells can be used devices such as this portable monocrystalline solar charger. A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristics—e. g. urrent, voltage, or resistance—vary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source. The term â€Å"photovoltaic† comes from the Greek (phos) meaning â€Å"light†, and from â€Å"Volt†, the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term â€Å"photo-voltaic† has been in use in English since 1849. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described as photovoltaic even when the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight, artificial light, etc. ). In such cases the cell is sometimes used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiationnear the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: 1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. 2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. 3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. Photoelectrolytic cell† (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by A. E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that splits water direct ly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS In the time since Berman’s work, improvements have brought production costs down under $1 a watt, with wholesale costs well under $2. â€Å"Balance of system† costs are now more than the panels themselves. Large commercial arrays can be built at below $3. 40 a watt,[12][13]  fully commissioned. As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger boules, older equipment became available at fire-sale prices. Cells have grown in size as older equipment became available on the surplus market; ARCO Solar’s original panels used cells with 2 to 4  inch (51 to 100  mm) diameter. Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 5  inch (125  mm) wafers, and since 2008 almost all new panels use 6  inch (150  mm) cells. This material has less efficiency, but is less expensive to produce in bulk. The widespread introduction of  flat screen televisions  in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large sheets of high-quality glass, used on the front of the panels. In terms of the cells themselves, there has been only one major change. During the 1990s, polysilicon cells became increasingly popular. These cells offer less efficiency than their monosilicon counterparts, but they are grown in large vats that greatly reduce the cost of production. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but more recently a variety of factors has pushed the higher performance mono back into widespread use. CURRENT EVENTS Other technologies have tried to enter the market. First Solar  was briefly the largest panel manufacturer in 2009, in terms of yearly power produced, using a thin-film cell sandwiched between two layers of glass. Since then silicon panels reasserted their dominant position both in terms of lower prices and the rapid rise of Chinese manufacturing, resulting in the top producers being Chinese. By late 2011, efficient production in China, coupled with a drop in European demand due to budgetary turmoil had dropped prices for crystalline solar-based modules further, to about $1. 09[13]  per watt in October 2011, down sharply from the price per watt in 2010. A more modern process, mono-like-multi, aims to offer the performance of mono at the cost of poly, and is in the process of being introduced in 2012[citation needed]. APPLICATIONS [pic] Polycrystalline  photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module [pic] [pic] Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a  module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the emiconductor  wafers  from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven debris,  rain,  hail, etc. Solar cells are also usually connected in  series  in modules, creating an additive  voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very significant problems exist with parallel connections. For example, shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and even damaging the weaker string because of the excessive  reverse bias  applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, special paralleling circuits are the exceptions. Although modules can be interconnected to create an  array  with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, using independent MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) provides a better solution. In the absence of paralleling circuits, shunt diodes can be used to reduce the power loss due to shadowing in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected  photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar panels can be used to power or recharge portable devices. THEORY The solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons  in  sunlight  hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons  (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of  direct current  (DC) electricity. EFFICIENCY Solar panels on the International Space Station absorb light from both sides. These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than single sided equivalents. The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies. A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and shadow angles. Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency,integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum efficiency under â€Å"external quantum efficiency†. Recombination losses make up a portion of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio. The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor ; 0. 70. Grade B cells have a fill factor usually between 0. 4 to 0. 7. 14] Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses. Single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33. 7%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight. [pic] Reported timeline of solar cell energy conversion efficiencies (from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (USA)) MATERIALS [pic] [pic] The  Shockley-Queisser limit  for the theoretical maximum efficiency of a solar cell. Semiconductors with  band gapbetween 1 and 1. eV, or near-infrared light, have the greatest potential to form an efficient cell. (The efficiency â€Å"limit† shown here can be exceeded by  multijunction solar cells. ) Various materials display varying efficiencies and have varying costs. Materials for efficient solar cells must have characteristics matched to the spectrum of available light. Some cells are designed to efficiently convert wavelengths of solar light that reach the Earth surface. However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth’s atmosphe re as well. Light absorbing materials can often be used in  multiple physical configurations  to take advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms. Materials presently used for photovoltaic solar cells include  monocrystalline silicon,  polycrystalline silicon,  amorphous silicon,  cadmium telluride, andcopper indium selenide/sulfide. [25][26] Many currently available solar cells are made from bulk materials that are cut into  wafers  between 180 to 240  micrometers thick that are then processed like other semiconductors. Other materials are made as  thin-films  layers, organic  dyes, and organic  polymers  that are deposited on  supporting substrates. A third group are made from  nanocrystals  and used as  quantum dots  (electron-confined  nanoparticles). Silicon remains the only material that is well-researched in both  bulkand  thin-film  forms. CRYSTALLINE SILICON [pic] Basic structure of a silicon based solar cell and its working mechanism. By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as â€Å"solar grade silicon†. Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon, orwafer. 1. monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): often made using the Czochralski process. Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical ingots, do not completely cover a square solar cell module without a substantial waste of refined silicon. Hence most c-Si panels have uncovered gaps at the four corners of the cells. 2. olycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, (poly-Si or mc-Si): made from cast square ingots — large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. Poly-Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are less effi cient. United States Department of Energy data show that there were a higher number of polycrystalline sales than monocrystalline silicon sales. 3. ribbon silicon is a type of polycrystalline silicon: it is formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and results in a polycrystalline structure. These cells have lower efficiencies than poly-Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots. 4. ono-like-multi silicon: Developed in the 2000s and introduced commercially around 2009, mono-like-multi, or cast-mono, uses existing polycrystalline casting chambers with small â€Å"seeds† of mono material. The result is a bulk mono-like material with poly around the outsides. When sawn apart for processing, the inner sections are high-efficiency mono-like cells (but square instead of â€Å"clipped†), while the outer edges are sold off as conventional poly. The result is line that produces mon o-like cells at poly-like prices. Analysts have predicted that prices of polycrystalline silicon will drop as companies build additional polysilicon capacity quicker than the industry’s projected demand. On the other hand, the cost of producing upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon, also known as UMG Si, can potentially be one-sixth that of makingpolysilicon. Manufacturers of wafer-based cells have responded to high silicon prices in 2004–2008 prices with rapid reductions in silicon consumption. According to Jef Poortmans, director of IMEC’s organic and solar department, current cells use between eight and nine grams of silicon per watt of power generation, with wafer thicknesses in the neighborhood of 0. 200 mm. At 2008 spring’s IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists’ Conference (PVS’08), John Wohlgemuth, staff scientist at BP Solar, reported that his company has qualified modules based on 0. 180 mm thick wafers and is testing processes for 0. 16 mm wafers cut with 0. 1 mm wire. IMEC’s road map, presented at the organization’s recent annual research review meeting, envisions use of 0. 08 mm wafers by 2015. Gallium arsenide multijunction: High-efficiency multijunction cells were originally developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration, but at present, their use in terrestrial concentrators might be the lowest cost alternative in terms of $/kWh and $/W. [35] These multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP2. [36] Each type of semiconductor will have a characteristic band gap energy which, loosely speaking, causes it to absorb light most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb electromagnetic radiation over a portion of the spectrum. Combinations of semiconductors are carefully chosen to absorb nearly the entire solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from as much of the solar energy as possible. GaAs based multijunction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date. In October 15, 2012, triple junction metamorphic cell reached a record high of 44%. [37] Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium arsenide GaAs, and germanium Ge p–n junctions, are seeing demand rapidly rise. Between December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $350 per kg to $680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to $1000–1200 per kg this year. Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry. Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were also being used as the power source of the Dutch four-time World Solar Challenge winners Nuna in 2003, 2005 and 2007, and also by the Dutch solar carsSolutra (2005), Twente One (2007) and 21Revolution (2009). The Dutch Radboud University Nijmegen set the record for thin film solar cell efficiency using a single junction GaAs to 25. 8% in August 2008 using only 4  µm thick GaAs layer which can be transferred from a wafer base to glass or plastic film. THIN FILMS [pic] Market share of the different PV technologies  In 2010 the market share of thin film declined by 30% as thin film technology was displaced by more efficient crystalline silicon solar panels (the light and dark blue bars). Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of material required in creating the active material of solar cell. Most thin film solar cells are sandwiched between two panes of glass to make a module. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels. The majority of film panels have significantly lower conversion efficiencies, lagging silicon by two to three percentage points. 31]  Thin-film solar technologies have enjoyed large investment due to the success of First Solar and the largely unfulfilled promise of lower cost and flexibility compared to wafer silicon cells, but they have not become mainstream solar products due to their lower efficiency and corresponding larger area con sumption per watt production. Cadmium telluride  (CdTe),  copper indium gallium selenide  (CIGS) and  amorphous silicon  (A-Si) are three thin-film technologies often used as outdoor photovoltaic solar power production. CdTe technology is most cost competitive among them. [32]  CdTe technology costs about 30% less than CIGS technology and 40% less than A-Si technology in 2011. CADMIUM TELLURIDE SOLAR CELL A cadmium telluride solar cell uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film, a  semiconductor  layer to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Solarbuzzhas reported that the lowest quoted thin-film module price stands at US$0. 84 per  watt-peak, with the lowest crystalline silicon (c-Si) module at $1. 06 per watt-peak. [33] The  cadmium  present in the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during ? res in residential roofs. [34]  A square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cell  Nickel-cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form. [34] COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a  direct band gap  material. It has the highest efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials (see  CIGS solar cell). Traditional methods of fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at  IBM  and  Nanosolar  attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes. GALLIUM ARSENIDE MULTIJUNCTION High-efficiency multijunction cells were originally developed for special applications such as  satellites  and  space exploration, but at present, their use in terrestrial concentrators might be the lowest cost alternative in terms of $/kWh and $/W. 35]  These multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using  metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors:  GaAs,  Ge, and  GaInP2. [36]  Each type of semiconductor will have a characteristic  band gap  energy which, loosely speaking, causes it to absorb light most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb  electromagnetic radiation  over a portion of the spectrum. Combinations of semiconductors are carefully chosen to absorb nearly all of the solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from as much of the solar energy as possible. GaAs based multijunction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date. In October 15, 2012, triple junction metamorphic cell reached a record high of 44%. [37] Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium arsenide GaAs, and germanium Ge p–n junctions, are seeing demand rapidly rise. Between December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $350 per kg to $680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to $1000–1200 per kg this year. Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry. Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were also being used as the power source of the Dutch four-time  World Solar Challenge  winners  Nuna  in 2003, 2005 and 2007, and also by the Dutch solar carsSolutra (2005),  Twente One (2007)  and 21Revolution (2009). The Dutch  Radboud University Nijmegen  set the record for thin film solar cell efficiency using a single junction GaAs to 25. 8% in August 2008 using only 4  Ã‚ µm thick GaAs layer which can be transferred from a wafer base to glass or plastic film. Light-absorbing dyes (DSSC) Dye-sensitized solar cells  (DSSCs) are made of low-cost materials and do not need elaborate equipment to manufacture, so they can be made in a  DIY  fashion, possibly allowing players to produce more of this type of solar cell than others. In bulk it should be significantly less expensive than older  solid-state  cell designs. DSSC’s can be engineered into flexible sheets, and although its  conversion efficiency  is less than the best  thin film cells, its  price/performance ratio  should be high enough to allow them to compete with  fossil fuel electrical generation. Typically a  ruthenium  metalorganic  dye  (Ru-centered) is used as a  monolayer  of light-absorbing material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a  mesoporous  layer of  nanoparticulate  titanium dioxide  to greatly amplify the surface area (200–300 m2/g TiO2, as compared to approximately 10 m2/g of flat single crystal). The photogenerated electrons from the  light absorbing dye  are passed on to the  n-type  TiO2, and the holes are absorbed by an  electrolyte  on the other side of the dye. The circuit is completed by a redox couple in the electrolyte, which can be liquid or solid. This type of cell allows a more flexible use of materials, and is typically manufactured by  screen printing  or use of  Ultrasonic Nozzles, with the potential for lower processing costs than those used for  bulk  solar cells. However, the dyes in these cells also suffer from  degradation  under heat and  UV  light, and the cell casing is difficult to  seal  due to the solvents used in assembly. In spite of the above, this is a popular emerging technology with some commercial impact forecast within this decade. The first commercial shipment of DSSC solar modules occurred in July 2009 from G24i Innovations. [38] Quantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs) Quantum dot solar cells  (QDSCs) are based on the Gratzel cell, or  dye-sensitized solar cell, architecture but employ low  band gap  semiconductor  nanoparticles, fabricated with such small crystallite sizes that they form  quantum dots  (such as  CdS,  CdSe,  Sb2S3,  PbS, etc. ), instead of organic or organometallic dyes as light absorbers. Quantum dots (QDs) have attracted much interest because of their unique properties. Their size quantization allows for the  band gap  to be tuned by simply changing particle size. They also have high  extinction coefficients, and have shown the possibility of  multiple exciton generation. [39] In a QDSC, a  mesoporous  layer of  titanium dioxide  nanoparticles forms the backbone of the cell, much like in a DSSC. This TiO2  layer can then be made photoactive by coating with semiconductor quantum dots using  chemical bath deposition,  electrophoretic deposition, or successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction. The electrical circuit is then completed through the use of a liquid or solid  redox couple. During the last 3–4 years, the efficiency of QDSCs has increased rapidly[40]  with efficiencies over 5% shown for both liquid-junction[41]  and solid state cells. [42]  In an effort to decrease production costs of these devices, the  Prashant Kamat  research group[43]  recently demonstrated a solar paint made with TiO2  and CdSe that can be applied using a one-step method to any conductive surface and have shown efficiencies over 1%. [44] Organic/polymer solar cells Organic solar cells  are a relatively novel technology, yet hold the promise of a substantial price reduction (over thin-film silicon) and a faster return on investment. These cells can be processed from solution, hence the possibility of a simple roll-to-roll printing process, leading to inexpensive, large scale production. Organic solar cells and  polymer solar cells  are built from thin films (typically 100  nm) of  organic semiconductors  including polymers, such as  polyphenylene vinylene  and small-molecule compounds like copper phthalocyanine (a blue or green organic pigment) and  carbon fullerenes  and fullerene derivatives such as  PCBM. Energy conversion efficiencies achieved to date using conductive polymers are low compared to inorganic materials. However, it has improved quickly in the last few years and the highest  NREL  (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) certified efficiency has reached 8. 3% for the  Konarka  Power Plastic. [45]  In addition, these cells could be beneficial for some applications where mechanical flexibility and disposability are important. These devices differ from inorganic semiconductor solar cells in that they do not rely on the large built-in electric field of a PN junction to separate the electrons and holes created when photons are absorbed. The active region of an organic device consists of two materials, one which acts as an electron donor and the other as an acceptor. When a photon is converted into an electron hole pair, typically in the donor material, the charges tend to remain bound in the form of an  exciton, and are separated when the exciton diffuses to the donor-acceptor interface. The short exciton diffusion lengths of most polymer systems tend to limit the efficiency of such devices. Nanostructured interfaces, sometimes in the form of bulk heterojunctions, can improve performance. [46] In 2011, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Michigan State University developed the first highly efficient transparent solar cells that had a power efficiency close to 2% with a transparency to the human eye greater than 65%, achieved by selectively absorbing the ultraviolet and near-infrared parts of the spectrum with small-molecule compounds. 47]  [48]Researchers at UCLA more recently developed an analogous polymer solar cell, following the same approach, that is 70% transparent and has a 4% power conversion efficiency. [49]   The efficiency limits of both opaque and transparent organic solar cells were recently outlined. [50]  [51]  These lightweight, flexible cells can be produced in bulk at a low cost, and could be used to create power generating windows. Silicon thin films Silicon thin-film cells  are mainly deposited by  chemical vapor deposition  (typically plasma-enhanced, PE-CVD) from  silane  gas and  hydrogen  gas. Depending on the deposition parameters, this can yield:[52] 1. Amorphous silicon  (a-Si or a-Si:H) 2. Protocrystalline  silicon or 3. Nanocrystalline silicon  (nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also called microcrystalline silicon. It has been found that protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage. [53]  These types of silicon present dangling and twisted bonds, which results in deep defects (energy levels in the bandgap) as well as deformation of the valence and conduction bands (band tails). The solar cells made from these materials tend to have lower  energy conversion efficiency  than  bulk  silicon, but are also less expensive to produce. The  quantum efficiency  of thin film solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon. An amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell is made of amorphous or microcrystalline silicon and its basic electronic structure is the  p-i-n  junction. -Si is attractive as a solar cell material because it is abundant and non-toxic (unlike its CdTe counterpart) and requires a low processing temperature, enabling production of devices to occur on flex ible and low-cost substrates. As the amorphous structure has a higher absorption rate of light than crystalline cells, the complete light spectrum can be absorbed with a very thin layer of photo-electrically active material. A film only 1 micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy. [54]  This reduced material requirement along with current technologies being capable of large-area deposition of a-Si, the scalability of this type of cell is high. However, because it is amorphous, it has high inherent disorder and dangling bonds, making it a bad conductor for charge carriers. These dangling bonds act as recombination centers that severely reduce the carrier lifetime and pin the Fermi energy level so that doping the material to n- or p- type is not possible. Amorphous Silicon also suffers from the Staebler-Wronski effect, which results in the efficiency of devices utilizing amorphous silicon dropping as the cell is exposed to light. The production of a-Si thin film solar cells uses glass as a substrate and deposits a very thin layer of silicon by  plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition  (PECVD). A-Si manufacturers are working towards lower costs per watt and higher conversion efficiency with continuous research and development on  Multijunction solar cells  for solar panels. Anwell Technologies Limited  recently announced its target for mul How to cite Street Light, Essay examples

Romeo and Juliet Act 2 Scene 2 Essay Example

Romeo and Juliet: Act 2 Scene 2 Paper Today we are going to be rehearsing Act 2 Scene 2, which is most commonly called the Balcony Scene. This scene is vital to the play, because with out the scene there might not have even been a story to write about. In many peoples opinions including mine this is the centre point of the play. This is because if Romeo hadnt jumped over the wall and consequently landed in Juliets garden. Romeo and Juliet probably wouldnt have seen each other again for a long while; and in the mean time their feelings would have died down from the heat of the moment. Also Romeo wasnt meant to hear what Juliet was saying about him. It was all thoughts on the top of Juliets head that were spur of the moment. They were also probably slightly embellished from what they actually were. The young love and the excitement of the party probably exaggerate their feelings. Juliet would never have said what she did if she knew Romeo was there. Hearing this would have thrilled Romeo especially after he had a crush on Rosaline for so long with it unreturned. To hear his feelings returned would only have heightened them. This is Juliets first kiss, so naturally she would be feeling excited and worked up. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 2 Scene 2 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 2 Scene 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet: Act 2 Scene 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer I think this would have died down, if fate hadnt played its part and in effect sped up their love. Now I want both of you acting Romeo and Juliet to understand how your characters would be feeling in this scene. Romeo- you have just escaped from your friends who are jesting at scars that have never felt a wound. To stop having to hear them teasing you, you have jumped over this wall, and you suddenly see your love Juliet. Romeo when you say what light through yonder window breaks? it can be interpreted in two ways. One, that you quite literally; see a candle light in the window. Or, which is how I would prefer you to act it, is that you see Juliet, and she is the light. Shakespeare used a lot of light imagery. Such as a diamond in an Ethiopians ear. I would like you to act it this way, not only because it gives more feeling to the audience, but also because Romeo has used light imagery through out the play. In this speech Romeo you carry on using light imagery, for example when you say Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, Your saying how Juliet is your sun and you want to see her but also that she is so perfect, she makes the moon jealous. Now Juliet you will be feeling all wrapped up in you emotions right now. Imagine youre about 13 and you have just had your first kiss, youre excited and in love at first sight with someone you barely know. Romeo when Juliet appears in the window, you have to show deep emotion. The audience needs to be able to see just how big your feelings are, to shows its actual love not just an infatuation like with Rosaline. Your first line it is my lady, O it is my love: needs to be said with love and compassion. It is so vital in this scene that you make sure that it is portrayed to the audience that your love for Juliet is so much more, than for Rosaline and that Rosaline was just a courtly lover. If it is not shown in this scene, one of the main love scenes then the whole play is not nearly as tragic. The play is all about the power of love. So if the audience dont understand the extent of Romeo and Juliets love; then the play is not nearly as strong. Shakespeare tried to show the difference in Romeos love for Rosaline and Juliet in the language. When Romeo was in love with Rosaline, his flamboyant language was all about himself and his feelings; not about Rosaline. Compared to when he loves Juliet, his language becomes more simple and all about Juliet. For example after you see Juliet in this speech you say Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, Having some business, do entreat her eyes, To twinkle in their spheres till they return. This means that when the two brightest stars in the sky, have to go, they would ask Juliets eyes to replace them. This is also more light imagery that Shakespeare uses to define the relationship of the lovers. The whole scene is suffused with the glow and light of their love. At this point Juliet when you say Ay me! although its a very short line, it is not at all insignificant. This needs to be said in a heart felt sigh, showing to the audience how all you can think about is Romeo. Juliet, as you can see this is when you say the most famous line in the play, and possibly even literature. O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo? But there is a common misconception about this line. What it actually means is O Romeo why are you a Montague Juliet is expressing her pains that Romeo is a Montague, her families arch-enemies. Or if he will not deny thy father and refuse thy name but swear is love then she will no longer be a Capulet This speech shows the sincerity of her love for Romeo, that she would disown her family. This needs to be said with feeling for the audience to understand the deepness of her love. This is a crucial speech in the play. At hearing this Romeo you need to be elated by the fact that she is returning the deepness of your love. Now you are in two minds, on wether to hear more or to speak at this so Juliet knows that you are there. This needs to be said slowly to show your conundrum to the audience. In the next speech Juliet, you are deliberating about the importance of names. Whats Montague? It is nor hand nor foot, it isnt anything but a name, its nothing. Juliet you go on contemplating the concept of why names mean nothing. Juliet is saying just because he is a Montague it doesnt make him a bad person. She compares this to a rose. That which we call a rose By any other word would smell as sweet; So Romeo is just as sweet as he would be if he wasnt a Montague. Juliet goes on to say that if Romeo casts aside his name then for doing that he can take all of Juliet. Now Romeo, you would be so euphoric at hearing this you would jump out of your hiding place and stand below Juliets balcony shouting up to her, to swiftly say but with deep passion how you will take Juliets word and never will be Romeo. From here Romeo you will go on to say how your name is hateful to you because its an enemy to thee Then Juliet you show the first sign of the connection between you and Romeo, that its true love not just a quick romance. Its the first time that you have shown a sign of being in love with Romeo. Romeo has already shown his love for Juliet, with out saying it by his change in language. So Juliet what it actually means when you say My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words is showing how she hasnt understood what Romeo has been saying, however it is significant when you say yet I know the sound. Because it shows how you still know its him even though you have spent such little time with him prior to this meeting. Then Juliet (when you later go on talking) you show how practical you are, so when you say the passage concerned about how Romeo got on to the wall, and if any of her kinsmen find him there; he will be killed. It needs to be said with great concern, to show to the audience the contrast, between Juliet and her practical concerns and Romeos unreasonable attitude. As he replies that he got on to the wall With loves light wings, and that nothing can hold love out. All this Romeo needs to be said with a care free, foolish way, to underline to the audience the difference in attitudes at this point. Romeo you take an irrational, unrealistic response to Juliets worries of his death. Then as you carry on this irrational charade, you say a very ironic speech which to the audience knowing how the story ends, from the prologue is very sad. Romeo you need to make sure that when you say this it is said to draw the attention of the audience and in such a haphazard, light-hearted way, to make the audience feel sad, due to the hindsight they will have. The passage says how you, Romeo would prefer to die with Juliets love then death prorogued, wanting of they love This indeed is finally how the play ends. In this next passage you Juliet, are saying some things that are embarrassing, so you need to act this with a bashful air, by looking down and doing occasional glances at Romeo, with a slight hush and pauses as you speak. Here you say how embarrassed you are, and that you are glad the mask of night is on your face, because otherwise Romeo would see you blushing. You wish that Romeo hadnt heard what you had said, so she could play harder to get, then laying all her cards down straight away. Then suddenly you need to look Romeo, straight in the eye to show your sincerity to the audience, and say directly Dost thou love me? leave a slight pause and say in a more rushed tone that you know he will say Ay and its a silly question because you will take thy word and believe him. Juliet you ask Romeo, which must be said truly heart felt, that Romeo must either pronounce it faithfully, his love for her or; if he thinks that you are too quickly won, If he said this you will frown but be preserve and pretend to refuse you, Romeo. Then Juliet you say how in truth, you are too fond of Romeo. But you tell Romeo to trust you. At this point you reach over the balcony and hold Romeos hand, look straight at him, to show the audience the sincerity. You tell Romeo that you will prove more true than those who were harder to get. You admit that you should have played more strange, but Romeo over heard you so you had not chance to do so. After this to prove your sincerity of love to Juliet; you Romeo swear by the moon, but Juliet tells you not to swear by the moon because it is inconsistent, meaning that his love was inconsistent. While you have been saying this you have climbed up and leaning over the balcony to Juliet. To also physically show to the audience, your efforts to prove to Juliet you love for her is true. So Romeo, after Juliet tells you not to swear at all; but if he must swear by the gracious self, you say readily and eagerly to her about your love until she cuts you off. When she does this you must look slightly disappointed but wrapped up in her all the same. Juliet this is where you show more of your practical personality in the audience, and of your maturity that has clearly developed since the beginning of the play. You are in sudden fear that this is all happening so fast. So that it will end so fast. This is all so sadly ironic, which the audience needs to pick up on, because they will as before, know from the prologue the fate of the young couples lives and love. Here the speeches are needed to be said with more urgency, because they are running out of time together. But because of this they are more genuine and truthful, as there is no time for poetic imagery, of light, flowers and so forth. Here Romeo you say to Juliet O wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied. Which at first both the audience and Juliet take to be a very forward comment, jumping to the conclusion that he wants to make love. Which is why Juliet asks slightly shocked and a bit worried, What satisfaction canst thou have tonight? Romeo here you must act completely unaware of what Juliet thought he meant, so that the audience understands that this is not what he meant. That what he wanted was loves faithful vow for his. Which Juliet you reply to with complete truth that she gave her vow of love before thou didst request it. And she wishes she could give it again. But clearly she cant because there is not enough time. But this does give the valid point of the sincerity of what Juliets love is, because she did say it before Romeo declared his. So when Romeo asks you to declaire it again you use imagery of water. My bounty is as boundless as the sea. Your love for Romeo gets deeper the more she gives to him. Her love is everlasting and endless; its infinite. Here Romeo and Juliet I want you to be holding on to both of each others hands. Romeo you must me completely stretched over the top of the balcony to Juliet. To emphasise how much you want to be with her, not just in the literal sense. Then as the nurse calls for Juliet within and Juliet desperately says how she will come back out, you pull apart, so unwillingly. As Juliet has left the balcony, Romeo you climb over the top and sit on the edge. Leave a slight pause once you have got into position and just look in to the night, to show the audience how you are in deep thought. Then sigh as you talk to the night. You say how afraid that because it is night you are worried it is all just a dream. After all that is what Juliet is to you, she is the girl of your dreams. (Juliet Speech to finish off need help! ) Here we will call it a day, but we will carry on from here tomorrow. As you go I want to leave you with one last thought to think about. I want each of you to think about just how much both of you have changed in the little time you have known each other. Romeo you have gone from being self wallowing and wrapped up of the idea in love, that all he was chasing was a dream, the infatuation with Rosaline was nothing. This Shakespeare tried to emphasise in different ways. But mainly in the flamboyant language and imagery to someone who understand. Then after you met Juliet you changed and realised that it wasnt all about you. As well as how wonderful Juliet was, and how you wanted to be with her not just superficially, because of her looks. Now Juliet you have changed greatly as well. Before you met Romeo you were nai ve, and juvenile. Where as now, you are proving to be the practical, and mature one. Worrying about safety and pushing your relationship forward. If it wasnt for you Romeo would probably still be at your balcony trying to prove how much he loved you at the end of the play! Romeo and Juliet act 2 scene 2 Essay Example Romeo and Juliet act 2 scene 2 Paper The scene opens with Romeos glorifying monologue to Juliets beauty. Romeos many comparisons of Juliet to the sun, stars and heavens, suggest that he is looking upwards, and that Juliet appears at an upstairs window. The images of bright light that he uses to describe her: But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east and Juliet is the sun! or Two of The fairest stars in all the heaven, having some business, do entreat her eyes to twinkle in their spheres till they return. , show Romeos unqualified love for Juliet. The images of bright light are represented differently in the many versions in which the film has been shot. Meanwhile in the older versions of the shakespearean tragedy the only really bright light is represented by the moon, that alone shines omnipotent over the scene, giving it a unique touch, in the newer versions this characteristic is represented in a more modern and extravagant way. The small lights attached to the orchard, that Romeo climbs to reach Juliets balcony, and the underwater lightning when the two lovers fall into the swimming pool manage to give a similiar effect of romance to the one that characterised the scene in the past versions. The underwater camera view creates a surrealistic and exremely romantic effect. The wetness is another determining factor in the scene. After falling into the pool the two caracters are obviously soaked. We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet act 2 scene 2 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet act 2 scene 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Romeo and Juliet act 2 scene 2 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Wetness has always symbolized sexuality and wildness, this image is probably connected to the fact, that when hair is wet it loses its original shape and becomes uncontrollable, also the feature that Juliet is wearing a see through dress increases the sense of sexual tension. Romeo as well as comparing her to images of light, describes her as a source of light itself. When she first speaks, he uses religious images of adoration, comparing her to an angel, a winged messenger of heaven, upon whom mortals fall back to gaze in wonder. Romeo had previously described Juilet with religious imagery; when they met at the ball, he describes her as a holy shrine. This, once more, indicates the deepness of Romeos love for Juliet, a love that is gradually turning into idolatry. Romeo is so caught up in his feelings that he doesnt care anymore for his security. The religious imagery is primarily represented by the clothes Juliet is wearing: the white dress and the silk wings give us a picture of Juliet being no longer a human being but more of a godess descended on earth. Also her standing on a balcony, a level above Romeo, reinforces this image. There is a big contrast between the two characters: Romeo dressed up as a knight and having risked his life to come and see Juliet, just as a knight would risk his life for his king, and Juliet being so innocent and angelic, delighted by Romeos visit. Juliets admission of love prompts Romeo to reveal himself, and to declare the hate for his name: Call me but love, and Ill be new baptised: Henceforth I never will be Romeo. Romeo is prepared to forget his past as a Montague, and betray his family s name and therefore his family too. In those times when the family honour was a very important part of ones personality, a statement such as this one could only signify true dedication and worship towards his love for Juliet. As she discovers him hiding in the orchard, her first excalamtion is one of fear for his safety;: How camst thou hither, tell me, and wherefore? The orchard walls are high and hard to climb, and the place death, considering who thou art, If any of my kinsmen find thee here. But Romeo dismisses the danger. Neither stone walls nor Capulet kinsmen can prevent his love: With loves light wings did I oerperch these walls, for stony limits cannot hold love out, And what love can do, that dares love attempt: Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me. Juliets love and the cover of the night protect him. In an image which will recur dramatically in his final speech in the play, Romeo compares himself to a sea-voyager driven to seek Juliets love, even if it were at the very ends of earth: I am no pilot, yet wert thou as far as that vast shore washed with the farthest sea, I should adventure for such merchandise. We can clearly see the difference in language use, between the two characters; on one hand there is Romeos insatiable romance which always seems to have the answer to Juliet enquiries, on the the other hand there is Juilets simple and direct speech. Juliet, unlike Romeo, is incapable of fully enjoying these brief moments with her lover, continuously worrying about being caught in the wrong. Romeo in this scene demonstrates that he possesses an immense courage, supported from his blind love for Juliet, he doesnt seem to care about the kinsmen that are patroling the building, and hes living these moments to the full. Once more we see how Romeo idolizes Juliet. He possesses the courage that only one who is protected by his god would have. In the video the contrast between the two characters attitude and language, is represented rather more by their actions than by their speech. Meanwhile, Juliet is terrorized by the idea of him been caught, Romeo doesnt care about his security. In fact when he and Juliet fall into the swimmimg pool, he jumps up shouting his love for her, at which point a guard gets suspicious and comes to check, and Romeo is close to getting discovered. Even though this moment in which Romeo is close to being caught, he is still unworried towards the situation, and completely focused on Juliet. Her questions and enquiries are suffocated by Romeos kisses and romantic attitude. Romeos mind is like flying towards other planets and dimensions, and does not understand Juliets reluctance and timidity towards his attitude. When Juliet manages to separate herself from Romeo, he explicitly claims not to be satisfied enough: O wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied? , referring in a double sense to Juliets lack of sensuality. Juliet admits embarassement at being overheard telling of her love. She rejects formal ways of speaking and behaving : farewell compliment, and asks Romeo directly if he loves her. She pleads for him to answer truthfully: pronounce faithfully, admitting she declared her own love for him unaware of his presence. She begs him not to swear by the moon, which is changeable and inconstant, but only by himself. This is a metaphor comparing Romeos love changes to the changes of the moon; before Romeo fell in love Juliet, he was already in love with another woman, Rosaline, which was immediately forgetten at the first sight of Juliet. She is afraid that Romeo would forget her just asquickly as he fell in love with her. Suddenly fearful, she sees their instant falling in love as too rash, too unadvised. It may prove as brief as a lightining flash, over as quickly as it began. In reply to Romeos anxious questions why she wishes to withdraw her vow of love and offer it again, Juliet uses simple but profoundly eloquent language to express the never-ending quality of her love for him: My bounty is as a boundless sea, My love as deep; the more I give to thee The more I have, for both are infinite . Juliet is the one to make the practical arrangements for the marriage, since Romeo is still dreaming about the time spent together. Before the two lovers separate themselves, Juliet uses a peculiar and very contradictory type of imagery to describe her feelings for Romeo, comparing herself to a playful girl and Romeo to her bird, which she lets free for a bit but then takes back because she cant live without him: I would have thee gone; And yet no farther than a wantons bird, that lets it hop a little from her hand, like a poor prisoner in his twisted gyves, and with a silk thread plucks it back again, so loving jealous of his liberty. This reflects the relationship between the two lovers; Juliet does not have the freedom that the bird, Romeo, has and has to let him go, but only for a bit, until they can meet again. And she is jealous of the freedom that a bird has, in fact Romeo wishes she was a bird so that she could have the freedom, and the possibility to live to the full her love with Romeo: I would I were thy bird. Juliet has played the dominant role in this scene ( she speaks twice as many lines as Romeo), it is her farewell that often remains in the audiences mind as the memorable expression of loverss leave taking. She leaves with an oxymoron that encapsulates the conflicts of the play and its joys and heartaches: Parting is such a sweet sorrow. Juliet on her first appearence appears submissive, modest, almost tongue-tied. She has little to say, and seems to respect her mothers authority. But this 13 year-old girl, superficially conventional and demure, rapidly matures in her meetings with Romeo. She allowes him to kiss her only moments after their first meeting, and in this scene she seems to take the lead, speaking twice as many times as Romeo. Shes the one who proposes the marriage, and does so the very next day. Critics tende to idealise Juliet and her love for Romeo. They describe her as charmingly innocent, but frank and courageous. Romeo appears first as a stock figure of romance: the moody young lover who is rejected by an unattainable woman. He is seen as the abject slave of a sadistic godess, he seems more in love with love than with an actual person. This scene is very important for the understanding of the whole play, as in it there are contained images and metaphors that encapsulate essential meanings of the play. Already from the beginning of the tragedy, expressions such as: star-crossed lovers, referring to the realtionship between Romeo and Juliet, give an idea on the course of the play. In the video version, directed by Baz Lurhman, an important metaphor is represented: when the two lovers fall into the swimming pool, their state of being is a comparison to their relationship: gradually their love is gettin uncontrolled and soon it will become impossible to manage, just like a person is not able to completely manage their movements in a swimming pool, where they dont touch. How the scene was adapted in the modern version, is probably more significative for us, as the type of atmosphere approaches more our ideal of love and romance, also it highlights meanings and images that would be difficult to interpretate in the older versions of the play.

Indianapolis Colts Marketing Essays

Indianapolis Colts Marketing Essays Indianapolis Colts Marketing Essay Indianapolis Colts Marketing Essay The process is then filtered down to managers (coaches) who are able to exploit employees (players) strengths that would have otherwise gone UN-noticed and fill their systematic needs. As a result, the end consumers (fans) and sponsors are able to make themselves or their company synonymous with a winner. The key to this formula is not Just one part but a combination of complex factors that facilitate the end result, winning football games. SOOT Analysis Internal Strengths An important strength that was stated above is the ability to find talent. This lies directly in the hands of the team president Bill Poplin. In a league where so much emphasis is put on the individual, Poplin focuses more on team cohesion, character, and fitting into a specific system. Startling as it may be, the Colts Super Bowl team featured 15 (out of 22) starters who were drafted by this man. His first pick came in 1998 (Peyote Manning) when the Colts owner Jim Arias gave up a third round pick to the Carolina Panthers In order to acquire Pollens services (Efferent). Instead of signing high priced free agents like most other teams are tempted to do because of he short-term benefits, he Is more Inclined to be more economical and tap hidden resources. Then, If you develop within the system Pollen will likely reward a players effort financially. Even with all of the success the team has had, it is even more remarkable to find it ranked 29th in team salaries for the 2010 season (NFG Salaries 2010). These abilities of Poplin, provide the organization with a distinctive competence because it is unique and has been unmatched by rivals. Another strength that should not go unnoticed is the seamless organizational changes the Colts have been able to make. For example their coach Jim Caldwell, who is entering his second season as head coach, was an assistant coach for seven years in a number of positions before taking over for Tony Dungy 0. This recent trend has been happening at all stages of the organization, from players all the way up through ownership. By giving ownership, coaches, and/or players time to mold the next person Into line; the chances of failure are reduced, and the brand can continue to thrive. This would qualify as a core competence because It Is an essential part of their strategy and resides in the staff and knowledge based. I en last strength would De winner ten colts play none games, Lucas o features a retractable roof, seating capacity of 63,000, two enormous high definition television screens, 137 suites, and a grand view of the Indianapolis skyline (Lucas Oil Stadium). So far for the 2010 season, the stadium has been filled to an average capacity of 67,072 (2010 Football Attendance). The playing surface is composed off synthetic turf, which is very much like grass but does not require detailed attention on a daily basis and is more cost-effective. By only having to invest 100 million of out he 725 million it cost to build, the Colts were able to minimize their level of capital exposure and still maintain a consistent winning attitude (Lucas Oil Stadium). Internal Weaknesses Like any other organization, the Colts have their own internal troubles. Sometimes it is hard to fathom a weakness within such a successful organization? Well, there are a wide variety ranging from all spectrums but main concerns center around a key players contract, and the market in which the Colts exist. Whether or not people like it, Peyote Manning is the face of the franchise for the Indianapolis Colts and has been for quite some time now. His contract is due to expire after the 2010 season, making him a free agent and the ability to sign with any other team. Arias has made remarks to the press several times that he intends on making his franchise quarterback the highest paid player in history but has not made good on his word as of yet. The uncertainty for the 2011 season and the market in which the Colts exist is probably a driving force behind a delay in Meanings new deal. Even though Indianapolis is the 1 lath largest city in the United States sport organizations like the Colts who are rather successful are still being dwarfed by larger market. For instance, last year the Redskins who were a losing franchise still managed to create a revenue stream of $345 million. As for the Colts, who made it to the Super Bowl and have had sustained success? They could only manage $233 million and will still below the league average of $236. 7 million (Schistose). External Opportunity Weve already discussed the relevance of the new Lucas Oil Stadium for home football games but it actually serves a larger purpose. There are only ten home games each year including pre-season games and that leaves a significant amount of time where football is not being played. The organization has been able to realize this and capitalize on the opportunity to increase revenue that is not shared with the rest of the National Football League. Seating capacity can either be reduced to 41,000 or expanded to 70,000 seats in order to cater to events such as basketball games, conventions, concerts and other marquee events (Lucas Oil Stadium). Another opportunity is Super Bowl KILL that is to be played at Lucas Oil Stadium in 2012. This will be the first time the city of Indianapolis will host such an event that used to be primarily played in warm weather cities. The economic impact of is the suggest upside for the city and could be in the neighborhood of $450 million (Cognoscente). Even tong ten colts wall not De addle to reap all AT ten pronto the rest of the world to observe how great of a city and venue the host has provided. If all goes well, there could be a potential for another Super Bowl to be played at Lucas Oil Stadium. External Threats The biggest threat facing the Colts organization externally is the possibility of a lockout for the 2011 season. There has been no agreement between the players union and owners on revenue percentages that are distributed to each. With each assign day, it looks more like a reality for this to happen. Basically, no one wins if there is a lockout because the potential to make money is gone. Television revenue will be the only money coming in and will eventually have to be paid back when football games do resume. Listed below are some additional parts to the analysis: SOOT Analysts Strengths: I Weaknesses: I * Front Office Coaching Staff * Consistent winning team * Studiousness * Brand Image/Reputation I * Smaller market * Player contracts I Opportunities: I Threats: I * Super Bowl in 2012 * Loyal fan base * Outside events I *Possible league cookout in 2011 * Other local teams (Pacers, Indians, etc) * Struggling economy I Benchmarking Benchmarking is a tool that allows a company to determine whether its performance of a particular function or activity represents the best practice when both cost and effectiveness are taken into account. This is something that we do subconsciously all the time. We always want to know what it takes to put out our product, and then we want to know how much it costs for our competition to put out its product. It is human nature to want to improve, and especially in the USA, improvement is demanded. Setting benchmarks for an organization is essential and it guides how the company makes decisions. With the Indianapolis Colts being a member of the NFG, it is very difficult to discover any in depth financial that are revealing. But one was very interesting to me. As we have mentioned earlier, one of the key success factors for the Colts, is a winning team on the field. To have the winning team you need players and the Colts overall payroll in 2010 was 5, ranking 29th (NFG Salaries). It is interesting that the Colts have been able to put such a consistent, winning, on field product that even wins league championships, paying sees in overall payroll than 28 other teams. It attests to the fact that it is more than just players that win games. The Colts have had a consistent coaching staff as well. Of the current 19 coaches on staff, 10 of them have been with the organization for 8+ years (Colts Coaches). Having the same coaches year in and year out provide stability Tort ten players Ana ten organization as a wangle. I en Detentes AT Dealing addle to Keep a coaching staff together are innumerable and invaluable. One statistic that is easily measurable is the ticket price of the games. The average ticket price for a Colts game is $54. 5 which puts them below the league average (Sports Ticket Price Guide). One this is great Just for economic reasons, but it also fits the fan demographic of the typical Colts fan. In both 2009 and 2008 the colts averaged over capacity at their new home Lucas Oil Stadium. In 2009 they were 1 of 8 teams that averaged over capacity (NFG Attendance) Value Chain Analysis The Indianapolis Colts have a core product of football that they are selling to their customers. However, customers can see football games at high schools, colleges, or other professional teams, so they must set themselves apart from their competition. The Colts add value to their brand of football in a variety of ways. Michael Porters value chain allows a look at each action the Colts perform in order to create the best product possible. There are five primary activities that the team undergoes during the process of adding value to its product. These are sales, marketing, sponsorships, operations, and service. Operations Operations cover a wide variety of issues for the Colts. Running a football team takes a large amount of effort and resources. The Colts play in one of the best stadiums in the NFG, which immediately adds value to the product the team is selling. Fans want to see a game in an enjoyable atmosphere with top notch facilities. Lucas Oil Stadium provides this. Stadium Journey rated Lucas Oil Stadium as being the best facility and having the best atmosphere of any stadium in the NFG (Bleacher Report). Having top notch facilities is important to the fan and can bring in a significant amount of money. Running such a stadium takes a large staff. The Colts employ grounds crew and parking operations employees and also have many other Jobs that are better covered by other parts of the value chain, such as marketing and ticket office staff and game day workers. Stadium operations and grounds crew workers are employed directly by the Colts, but parking attendants are outsourced by the team. While important to the team, these resources are better used in other ways, so allowing another company to handle this is a better option. Operations also cover the coaching staff and players. If a good product is not put out on the field, fans will not attend the game regardless of how nice the stadium is. The Colts have done a great job over the years of putting together a top-notch team year in and year out. In 2009 he Colts went 14-2 in the regular season, a winning percentage of 87. 5%, the best record in the NFG. They won their division and the AFC Championship before eventually losing in the Super Bowl. Even with the loss, the Colts appeared in their second Super Bowl in four years, adding an extreme amount of value to the product. Fans want to see their team win, and the Colts have done this better than almost all other teams. Since 2000, the Colts have the fifth best record in the NFG, out of 32 teams (Best Football Talk). Operations are the first step to building a successful team, s you cannot run a franchise without players, coaches, a facility, and staff. Marketing After a team, facility, and stadium staff are put together, the team must make itself known to its potential customers through marketing and promotions. NFG teams have to market themselves well in order to build up value for their franchise. The Indianapolis Colts hire an in-house marketing team to bring out their name. While outsourcing Is Test Tort concessions Ana parking, ten colts nave called to Keep tenet marketing employees internal in order to have better control and accountability. This Taft is responsible for getting out into the community, both physically and virtually, to make sure local residents know everything that is going on with the team. They create billboards and advertisements for the community to see and also run promotions during games. These two areas are extremely important to the team. The fans must know when the team plays and any special offers and contests the team is running in order to be convinced to buy tickets. While at the game, the marketing department handles all on-field promotions and games with the intent of grabbing the interest of fans. The atmosphere is vital to a great fan experience and it is the marketing staffs Job to make sure this happens. While cheerleaders are not officially within the marketing department, they are strongly related and the two departments often work in conjunction. The cheerleaders squad is also run internally by the team, which is different from many other teams, who outsource their cheerleaders. Cheerleaders work only part time for the team but also make many appearances outside of the stadium. They take part in marketing events and player appearances in order to garner more attention for the Colts. They are also often involved with in-game promotions. The Colts spend a significant amount of money advertising, as can be seen from the amount of billboards and commercials in and around Indianapolis, but this money brings a considerable quantity of revenue to the team, making it vital to their day-to-day operations. The marketing team also works closely with the ticket operations staff, but currently the Colts have chosen to keep them under separate departments. Sponsorships Sponsorships bring in an enormous amount of revenue to teams. Franchises must work with other businesses to advertise. This works both ways. The Colts are able to attach their name to local and national companies, and in return those companies are allowed to use the Colts name and logo on its products. Both sides gain revenue and exposure from this type of deal. Sometimes businesses do not have the money or staff to get too involved with the team, and instead simply buy a space inside the stadium to advertise their company. This could be a commercial on the screen during a game or posted signs around the stadium. Possibilities are nearly endless for this type of operation, and the Colts have a team in place to figure out what is most appropriate for each business client. The corporate sales team, like the marketing and ticket operations departments, is handled internally. Major clients of the Colts include Union Federal Bank, Marsh Supermarkets, Papa Johns, Lucas Oil, Toyota, and Forum Credit Union (Colts. Com). The partnership between the Colts and these companies brings credibility to both parties. Many people will buy products simply because the Colts logo is on them, and seeing the logo reminds them of the Colts, which can lead to increased ticket sales, yet again, a valuable part of the franchise. Sales After the foundation of the team is set up with its stadium and operations staff and NAS mar tea K Itself to ten community as well as galena corporate partners, outlets to the games themselves must be sold. Ticket sales are the most important part of any sports team. If fans do not come to the stadium, not enough money will be made to support the team. The value added by marketing and sponsorships plays largely into sales. Marketing creates sales leads that the ticketing department can follow up on and also creates awareness about the team, causing people to buy tickets. The Colts and other teams use techniques such as cold calling and great customer service to entice fans to purchase tickets. The Colts are currently in a near perfect situation because they do not have to work too hard to sell their tickets. Every Colts home game in 2009 was sold out. The average attendance at those games was 66,549. Lucas Oil Stadium only holds 63,000 fans, so the average capacity rate was 105. 6% (Business First). With sold out games the Colts are able to save money on employees and bills because there are not any single game tickets to sell. This is a major nominative advantage compared with many other teams. But ticket sales are down across the NFG and there will most likely come a time when tickets are not sold out. The Colts have a staff that is prepared to handle a situation where targeting specific potential customers is necessary. The employees of the Colts will use warm and cold calling and other techniques in order to bring fans back into Lucas Oil Stadium. As with other departments, the Colts run their sales staff internally. Full-time, part-time, and internship positions are available with the team. While outsourcing the staff may eve money up front, instead the team is able to train their staff how they want and they have better control over all sales decisions that are made. The distribution of tickets costs the team money, but service and processing fees are added onto the order to account for these expenses. This allows the team to keep more of the revenue gained from each ticket. Tickets can be purchased online, over the phone, or at the ticket office itself. This is very valuable for fans as it provides flexibility based on what is easier for each individual fan without adding too much more of an expense for the team. With many different price levels, seating preferences, and handicap accessible seating, customers are able to choose which combination of price and location is best for them. Having such a wide variety of options adds great value to the ticket office and in turn the team itself. Service Creating the best possible fan experience means following up with the customer even after the ticket sale has been completed. The Colts have a large staff of employees in order to serve customers, both during the week and on game days. They provide support for any problems customers experience, sell concessions and researched, and have the ultimate goal of improving the fan experience. Fans have different needs and having a staff to take care of those needs is very important. Ushers, concession workers, security, and simply having people around to ask questions to, in addition to workers in operations, marketing, and sales, are vital to creating a smooth, fun experience for the fan. From personal experience, the Colts have a well-trained staff that is better than most other organizations. These positions are outsourced to a variety of companies. Security and crowd management is run by company called Contemporary Services Corporation (SC). The Indianapolis branch AT SC Is actually nausea Insane AT Lucas 011 stadium, allowing quickly access to ten resources of the team and stadium. Contemplate, a hospitality company based out of Connecticut, currently has the bid to run concessions for the team. Outsourcing these positions frees up both time and money for the Colts. Rather than training and supervising these extra hundreds of employees, the Colts can focus their efforts on the most important issues ticket sales, operations, marketing, and sponsorships. Because of the mass of money and customers, any major company would love to have the Colts as clients. This means the companies bid on working for the Colts, so the Colts end up with the best possible price for their needs. These five primary departments form together to create the brand of the Colts and the product of football. Each of these parts adds a significant amount of value to the product, enticing fans to purchase tickets. Even though some of these departments are less crucial to the day-to-day operations of the team than others, without even one of these sectors, the Colts would not be able to exist.

Santas Reply - A Funny, Comedic Male Monologue

'Santa's Reply' - A Funny, Comedic Male Monologue This stand-alone comedic male monologue features Santa trying to win back Mrs. Claus. If you want to know how this happy couple fell apart, read Mrs. Clauses piece in our list of comedic female monologues. It may be used by students, actors, directors for educational or professional purposes. But remember, it is purely a work of fiction. In reality, Mr. and Mrs. Claus are happily married! Santas Reply SANTA: Dear Mrs. Claus... Ever since you left me for the Easter Bunny, my life has become utterly meaningless. Without you, the North Pole truly is the loneliest place in the world. Without you by my side, there has been no one to keep me on my diet. Ive gorged upon cookies and milk. I even stole Rudolphs carrots. I gobbled up the gingerbread house next door. The neighbors are furious. Ive gotten so big, the reindeer have developed back problems. Thanks to me, the sled now exceeds its maximum capacity. I dont think Ill be able to clear the Rockies this Christmas Eve. And I cant stop drinking. Ive been going to Eggnog Anonymous meetings, but they just arent helping. And I hesitate to mention how devastated the elves have been. They keep asking about you. So, as you can tell, without you, my life is ho-ho-horrible. Please come back to me. I dont care if youre naughty or nice. Theres no one else I want underneath my mistletoe. Please come home.

Inexorable Fate of Catherine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Inexorable Fate of Catherine - Essay Example The actions and attitude of Catherine towards life and death, religion and ateism reflected that a person with a wide range of feelings had a fuller life than a person with a more restricted rang. When I read this chapter, it makes me think that we are alive when we are feeling freshly, or profoundly, or delicately; and that lack of all feeling is death and unconsciousness. But certain distinctions we can make within the scope of these propositions are by no means widely recognized; for instance, that fresh, strong feeling in Catherine is a different thing from the mass strong feeling she had faced with during the wartime. The life experience of Catherine depicted that some types and manifestations of human feeling were gross self-indulgence and were not at all the thing they appeared to be, in other words "this was what people got for loving each other" (Hemingway, 329). I disagreed with indifference and protests of Catherine against a priest. In my opinion, Catherine should change her mind and asked God to help her, but she refused. Henry asked Catherine: "Do you want me to get a priest or any one to come and see you", but she answered "Just you" (Hemingway, 330). On the other hand, this remark shows great love between Catherine and Henry, their mutual trust and support. Reading this chapter, I came to conclusion that in childhood, people believe subconsciously in superficial power of some thing beyond our understanding, in adolescence period, we deny everything being unable to join scientific knowledge about the world and unscientific knowledge on which religion is based. At the end of the chapter I understood that love to Henry was the only true faith for Catherine. I was amazed by courage and personal strength of Catherine in this chapter. Her courage and bravery proved the idea that only in difficult situations people show their real nature and courage: "When the pains were bad she called them good ones" (Hemingway, 326). Toughness stems were not from insensitivity but from a strict personal code which functions as the character's sole defense against the overwhelming chaos of death. Catherine was a real hero trying to support and encourage Henry. She told that she was "'not going to die" (Hemingway 326). The following passage was the most impressive part of the chapter, because as a reader I could do nothing to change the course of events but remain a passive viewer of human sufferings. "It seems she had one hemorrhage after another. They couldn't stop it. I went into the room and stayed with Catherine until she died. She was unconscious all the time, and it did not take her very long to die" (Hemingway 331). It was really difficult for me to read the rest of the chapter realizing that Catherine "would die" (Hemingway 327). The great irony of Catherine's death was that she had helped people all her life saving dozens of soldiers, but was faced with ultimately death of her own. The crying injustice was that she gave birth to a child who was stillborn. Her downfall was a result of a fatal flaw of events, a trait which she could not help as it was a fate which caused the tragedy and death. Catherine suffered beyond what could be expected, and paid beyond measure for whatever love and happiness she had. A new life always symbolizes great expectations and hopes which can change the life of a person or a family for the good, but for Catherine it resulted in death. Catherine tells Henry: "I'm not brave any more, darling, I'm

Current US GDP Figures and the Current State of the US Economy Research Paper

Current US GDP Figures and the Current State of the US Economy - Research Paper Example Economic system is the process of construction, distribution and consumption by specific people within a particular geographical setting. The people can be individuals, association, and businesses or government (Mankiw, 2011). With these considerations, the paper intends to illustrate the current GDP figures and the current status of the US economy. Current US GDP Figures The GDP figures in the US have witnessed a considerable fluctuation in the past decade. In the United States, the GDP figure in the year 2013 stands at 15684.80 billion US Dollars. Approximately, 25.30% of US GDP represents the world economy. The figures related to the US GDP were illustrated by World Bank Group. From 2004, the GDP figures have endeavored to attain peak position but in 2010 it came down to 13893.3 billion US Dollars from 14219.3 billion US Dollars in 2009. Then again, from 2010 onwards, it has kept on increasing, which signifies a relatively stable condition of the US industrial sector (Trading Econ omics, 2013). US GDP Source: (Trading Economics, 2013) The production of goods and services by the labor and assets located inside the United States has significantly increased to 2.5% in the 2nd quarter of 2013 as reported by Bureau of Economic Analysis. According to the 1st quarter of 2013, the GDP was 1.1% and 0.1% in 2012 Quarter 4 (Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company, 2013). The total GDP in June 2013 was estimated to be US$16.6 trillion. The US has one of the strongest and industrially advanced economies in the world. Rental, leasing, real estates, educational services, health care, professional and insurance constitute over 40% of GDP (Trading Economics, 2013). The following illustration depicts the distribution of GDP in the leading industrial sectors in the US: Government related services: 13% of GDP Transportation, utilities, warehousing and information: 10% of GDP Retail and Wholesale trade Centre: 12% Manufacturing, Mining and Construction: 17% of GDP Agriculture: 1.5% Source: (Trading Economics, 2013) The recent boost in the economy has facilitated the US in terms of ensuring more exports and fixed investment. Moreover, with the enhancement of the economic purview, there has been an augmentation in expenditure by local government and reduction in the imports along with deceleration in private firms’ investment and in personal expenditure (Sivy, 2013). US GDP % Change on a Quarterly Basis (2011 to 2013, Q2) Source: (Cable News Network. A Time Warner Company, 2013). Current State of US Economy The history related to the US economy could be viewed with reference to the influence made by the European settlements. US economy is the world’s leading and technologically advanced economy. The nominal GDP of US was reported to be US$16.9 trillion in June 2013. US economy is determined to be a mixed economy and is able to uphold overall growth in GDP. The US has huge natural resources, advanced infrastructure and high productivity. The na tion is the 2nd largest producer related to natural gas and 3rd major producer of oil as well as it is 2nd biggest trading country in the world following China. From 2010, the US has remained the world’s largest producer (The Heritage Foundation, â€Å"United States†). After recording more than three years of uninterrupted economic growth, at present The US economy has recorded less than 2.25% growth and is estimated to slow down to less than 1% in the near future (Sivy, 2013). The US with an economic freedom score of 76 remains down in 2013 index and noted its